The oldest constitution, USA

Preamble
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Article I
Section 1   Section 2   Section 3   Section 4   Section 5   Section 6   Section 7   
Section 8   Section 9   Section 10   

Section 1
All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section 2

The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.

Section 3

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.
Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.
Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

Section 4
The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators.
The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Section 5

Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.
Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member.

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal.

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Section 6

The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.  

Section 7

All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States: If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it.  If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.
Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.

Section 8

The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures; To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;

To establish Post Offices and post Roads;  

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; To provide and maintain a Navy; To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;—And

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Section 9

The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.
No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.
No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another; nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.

Section 10
No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.
No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Control of the Congress.
No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.

Article II
Section 1   Section 2   Section 3   Section 4   

Section 1

The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows:

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representatives from each State having one Vote; a quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice-President.

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:—»I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.»

Section 2

The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to Grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

Section 3

He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

Section 4

The President, Vice President and all Civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

Article III
Section 1   Section 2   Section 3   

Section 1

The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

Section 2

The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;—to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public ministers and Consuls;—to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;—to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;—to Controversies between two or more States;—between a State and Citizens of another State;—between Citizens of different States;—between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.

Section 3

Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

Article IV
Section 1   Section 2   Section 3   Section 4   

Section 1

Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.

Section 2

The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.

Section 3

 New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Section 4

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.

Article V
   
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

Article VI
            
All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any state to the Contrary notwithstanding. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.

Article VII
   
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names,                                 Go. Washington—Presidt.                                 And deputy from Virginia                  New Hampshire               John Langdon                                                                 Nicholas Gilman                  Massachusetts                  Nathaniel Gorham                                                                 Rufus King                  Connecticut                        Wm. Saml. Johnson                                                                 Roger Sherman                  New York                            Alexander Hamilton                  New Jersey                        Wil: Livingston                                                                 David Brearley                                                                 Wm. Paterson                                                                 Jona. Dayton                  Pennsylvania                     B Franklin                                                                 Thomas Mifflin                                                                 Robt Morris                                                                 Geo. Clymer                                                                 Thos. FitzSimons                                                                 Jared Ingersoll                                                                 James Wilson                                                                 Gouv Morris                  Delaware                             Geo: Read                                                                 Gunning Bedford jun                                                                 John Dickinson                                                                 Richard Bassett                                                                 Jaco: Broom                  Maryland                             James McHenry                                                                 Dan of St. Thos. Jenifer                                                                 Danl Carroll                  Virginia                                 John Blair—                                                                James Madison Jr.                 North Carolina                   Wm. Blount                                                                 Richd. Dobbs Spaight                                                                 Hu Williamson                  South Carolina                   J. Rutledge                                                                 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney                                                                 Charles Pinckney                                                                 Pierce Butler                  Georgia                                William Few                                                                 Abr Baldwin                  Attest William Jackson Secretary


AMENDMENTS
Amendment I (1791)   Amendment II (1791)   
Amendment III (1791)   Amendment IV (1791)   
Amendment V (1791)   Amendment VI (1791)   
Amendment VII (1791)   Amendment VIII (1791)   
Amendment IX (1791)   Amendment X (1791)   
Amendment XI (1795/1798)   Amendment XII (1804)   
Amendment XIII (1865)   Amendment XIV (1868)   
Amendment XV (1870)   Amendment XVI (1913)   
Amendment XVII (1913)   Amendment XVIII (1919)   
Amendment XIX (1920)   Amendment XX (1933)   
Amendment XXI (1933)   Amendment XXII (1951)   
Amendment XXIII (1961)   Amendment XXIV (1964)   
Amendment XXV (1967)   Amendment XXVI (1971)   
Amendment XXVII (1992)   

Amendment I (1791)
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

Amendment II (1791)
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

Amendment III (1791)
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Amendment IV (1791)
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment V (1791)
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Amendment VI (1791)
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

Amendment VII (1791)
In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Amendment VIII (1791)
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment IX (1791)
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Amendment X (1791)
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

Amendment XI (1795/1798)
The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.

Amendment XII (1804)
The Electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;—The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;—The person having the greatest Number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President—The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.

Amendment XIII (1865)
Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XIV (1868)
Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

Amendment XV (1870)
Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XVI (1913)
The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.

Amendment XVII (1913)
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.

Amendment XVIII (1919)
Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

Amendment XIX (1920)
The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XX (1933)
Section 1. The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin. Section 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Section 3. If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified. Section 4. The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them. Section 5. Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article. Section 6. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.

Amendment XXI (1933)
Section 1. The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed. Section 2.  The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited. Section 3.  This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

Amendment XXII (1951)
Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this Article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President, when this Article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term. Section 2. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission to the States by the Congress.

Amendment XXIII (1961)
Section 1. The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct: A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXIV (1964)
Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXV (1967)
Section 1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. Section 2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress. Section 3. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President. Section 4. Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President. Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.

Amendment XXVI (1971)
Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXVII (1992)
No law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.

Wikipedia about Iron:

Järn (latinskt namn: Ferrum) är ett vanligt förekommande metalliskt grundämne som tillhör övergångsmetallerna. Järn förekommer i allotroperna alfa– och gammajärn, ämnen som båda består av rent järn men med olika kristallstruktur.[7] Järn har många användningsområden. Det används bland annat till verktyg och vapen, samt till det vanliga byggmaterialet stål.

Etymologi

Järn är ett samgermanskt ord, besläktat med bland annat engelska iron, tyska Eisen och gotiska eisarn. Orden kan rekonstrueras som *īsarno på det germanska urspråket, vilket troligen är ett lånord från keltiska språk: järn är isarnogalliska och iranann eller íarnforniriska. Ordet är rotbesläktat (roten *eis-) med grekiska hieros (gudomlig), latin ira (vrede) och avestiska aēšma (ilska). Detta anspelar på att gudarna gav människorna järn i form av meteorer.[källa behövs] De äldsta föremålen i Egypten och Sumer av meteoriskt järn är från 4000 f.Kr., först 2500 år senare kunde man tillverka järn ur malm.

Järn(III)oxids röda (äldre nysvenska raud) färg har givit järn sitt estniska (raud) och finska namn (rauta).

Föreningar

Järn har vanligen oxidationstalen +2 och +3 i kemiska föreningar. Andra stadier (-2, -1, 0, +1, +4, +5 och +6) förekommer också, men inte lika ofta.

  • −2 i Fe(CO) 42 {\displaystyle _{4}^{2-}}
  • −1 i Fe2(CO) 42 {\displaystyle _{4}^{2-}}
  • 0 i Fe(CO)5 och i ferrocen
  • 1 i [Fe(H2O)5NO]2+
  • 2 i FeO
  • 3 i Fe2O3 (hematit)
  • 4 är mycket sällsynt men finns i vissa enzymer
  • 5 är mycket sällsynt
  • 6 i K2FeO4 (Kaliumferrat)

FeO är ett svart magnetiskt pulver som används i pigment. Fe2O3 är vanlig rost och används också som pigment. K2FeO4 är rödlila och starkt oxiderande.

Förekomst

Järn är det fjärde vanligaste grundämnet i jordskorpan. Det förekommer dock sällan i ren form, men ofta i föreningar med syre såsom hematit och magnetit eller svavelbundet i pyrit och magnetkis samt i många silikatmineral. Jordens kärna består till stor del av en järn-nickellegering.

I Sverige var det under järnåldern främst myrmalm som utgjorde råmaterialet i den svenska järnframställningen. Gästrikland, södra Norrland, Närke, Småland, liksom Dalarna och Västmanland var viktiga produktionsområden.

Under historisk tid sedan man börjat bryta bergsmalm är det framför allt berggrunden i Bergslagen och Norrland som har varit och är de viktigaste källorna till järn. I Bergslagen bröts järnmalm i tusentals gruvor (de flesta små) men nästan alla är numera nedlagda. Den största järngruvan i Bergslagen var Grängesberg i Ludvika kommun. Här pågick järnbrytning från 1500-talet fram till 1989. I Norrland bryts metallen idag i Kirunavaara och Malmberget. Den förstnämnda var redan 1904 Sveriges största gruva. Malmen i Kirunavaara är ett kolossalt brantstående lager, som huvudsakligen består av magnetit. År 2003 hade 1 200 miljoner ton malm brutits.

Järn är det grundämne vars kärna har högst bindningsenergi per nukleon. I stjärnor i termodynamisk jämvikt är järn därför det tyngsta grundämnet som kan skapas genom fusion av lättare kärnor.[8][9] Tyngre grundämnen skapas i mer våldsamma processer som supernovaexplosioner och kollisioner mellan neutronstjärnor.[10]

Framställning och användning

Järn tillverkas vanligtvis från Fe2O3 eller Fe3O4 som reduceras med kol vid ungefär 2000 °C. Först reagerar kolen med syret i luften och bildar kolmonoxid. 6 C + 3 O2 → 6 CO

Sedan reagerar kolmonoxiden med järnoxiden och bildar metalliskt järn. 6 CO + 2 Fe2O3 → 4 Fe + 6 CO2

Legeringar med järn

Järn innehåller oftast en mängd kol. Ju mer kol desto hårdare och sprödare blir järnet.

  • Tackjärn – järn med över 4 % av kol. Det framställs i masugnar för att omvandlas till användbara former av järn.
  • Gjutjärn – innehåller 2–4 % kol, och bland annat kisel.
  • Stål – innehåller 0,4–1,5 % kol och är idag den mest använda legeringen.
  • Smidesjärn – innehåller mindre än 0,4 % kol.

Järn som mineral

Det är mycket sällsynt att järn uppträder i helt ren form. Mineralet kristalliserar i det kubiska kristallsystemet. Den har en hårdhet på 4,5 och är stålgrå till svart i färgen. Även streckfärgen är grå. Rent (gediget) järn är inte stabilt i vanlig ovanjordisk miljö där det förekommer vatten och syre. I sådan miljö oxiderar järnet till rost. Däremot rostar inte järnmeteoriter eftersom järnet där är legerat med nickel. I sällsynta fall uppträder gediget järn i basaltiska bergarter som följd av att kolhaltiga ämnen reducerat järnhaltiga mineral.[11]

Fysiologisk betydelse

Järn är ett viktigt spårämne i den mänskliga kroppen. En vuxen person innehåller ungefär 4 gram järn, varav merparten finns i de röda blodkropparna hemoglobin. En mindre del i muskelns röda färgämne myoglobin, små mängder finns upplösta i blodplasman, kroppsvätskorna och utgör en beståndsdel i en lång rad enzymer. Cirka 20% är deponerat i lever, benmärg och mjälte, varifrån det kan mobiliseras vid behov.

Som en beståndsdel av hemoglobinet transporterar järn syre från lungorna ut till alla celler och koldioxid den motsatta vägen. Det ingår i enzymer som i mitokondrierna styr cellernas respirationprocesser.

Brist på järn kan ge trötthet, hjärtklappning, andfåddhet etc. Vid svår järnbrist kan det också uppstå förändringar i munslemhinnan, speciellt tungan, samt i huden och naglarna. Det finns även en del som tyder på att järnbrist kan vara en bidragande orsak till rastlösa ben. Brist kan vidare förorsakas av underskott på magsyra samt brist på B6-vitamin, B12-vitamin, C-vitamin, folsyra, zink, koppar eller mangan. Järnunderskott kan medföra blodbrist, cancer, leverbesvär, kronisk gikt i lederna och mottaglighet för infektioner.

Efter blodförluster såsom genom menstruation eller blodgivning kan mängden järn, precis som blodmängden, vara för låg. Blodgivare brukar få järntabletter för att lättare stabilisera järnvärdet.

Överdosering av järn under längre perioder kan medföra hemosideros (avlagring av järn i vävnaderna) speciellt i lever, mjälte, bukspottkörtel, hjärta och leder. Järn är en tungmetall som lagras i kroppen, järn är inte vattenlösligt utan lagras i fett. Överdosering kan leda till förgiftning.

Järn påträffas vanligtvis i livsmedel som inälvsmat (speciellt lever), ägg, fisk, blodmat, fågel, bladgrönsaker, fullkornsprodukter, katrinplommon, russin, öljäst, rödbetor, broccoli, vetegroddar, sesamfrö, vallmofrö, solrosfrö, bananer, persikor och aprikoser.

Diet

Rekommenderat dagligt intag: Barn 5–10 mg, kvinnor 10–15 mg (ammande 12–18 mg), män 10–12 mg. Se vidare RDI-tabell.

I Livsmedelsverkets senaste rikstäckande undersökning av kostvanor i den svenska befolkningen, Riksmaten – 2010-11, var det rapporterade intaget av järn per dag i genomsnitt 9,5 mg för kvinnor, 11,5 mg för män och 10,4 mg för hela gruppen i undersökningen.[12] Det energistandardiserade intaget av järn var högre för kvinnor än för män.[12] Äldre hade högre intag än yngre.[12]

question of reint to gemini, are snakes reptiles

Yes, snakes are cold-blooded vertebrates classified as reptiles. They share fundamental reptilian traits, including scaly skin, lungs for breathing air, and an inability to internally regulate their body temperature, meaning they rely on their environment to stay warm or cool. [1, 2]

Snakes belong to the order Squamata, which also includes all lizards. In fact, evolutionary biologists classify snakes as specialized descendants of four-legged lizards that evolved to lose their legs over 150 million years ago. While some people mistakenly group legless lizards and snakes together, you can tell them apart because true snakes do not have eyelids or external ear openings. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

is er verschil tussen gereformeerd protestants en normaal protestants

Ja, er is zeker een verschil. De term ‚protestants‘ is de overkoepelende naam voor alle christelijke stromingen die zijn ontstaan uit de Reformatie van de 16e eeuw. ‚Gereformeerd‘ is een specifieke stroming binnen dat protestantisme. Alle gereformeerden zijn dus protestants, maar niet alle protestanten zijn gereformeerd. [1, 2, 3]

De belangrijkste verschillen zitten in de geschiedenis en de geloofsleer:

  • Ontstaan: Het ’normale‘ protestantisme (vaak de Hervormde Kerk) is ontstaan vanuit de leer van Maarten Luther. De gereformeerde stroming is gebaseerd op de theologie van Johannes Calvijn (de Zwitserse reformatie). [1, 2]
  • Geloofsbeleving: Gereformeerden staan bekend om een striktere interpretatie van de Bijbel en leggen traditioneel gezien meer nadruk op de ‚zonde en genade‘ en de uitverkiezing. De algemene protestantse stroming is over het algemeen iets vrijzinniger en moderner in de opvattingen en kerkdiensten.
  • Organisatie: In Nederland zijn de meeste traditioneel gereformeerde en hervormde kerken sinds 2004 samengegaan in de Protestantse Kerk in Nederland (PKN). Wel zijn er nog steeds zelfstandige gereformeerde kerken (zoals de Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerken en de Gereformeerde Kerken Vrijgemaakt) die strikter in de leer zijn. [1]

Wil je specifiek weten hoe dit zit voor de kerken in jouw regio in Friesland? Of ben je benieuwd naar de verschillen in de praktijk, zoals de liturgie?

Google Gemini

Nee, koning Willem-Alexander gelooft niet in de Noordse of Germaanse goden zoals Odin (Wodan), Loki en Freyja. Hij is overtuigd christen en lid van de Protestantse Kerk in Nederland (PKN). [1]

Zijn geloofsovertuiging in vogelvlucht:

  • Persoonlijk geloof: Willem-Alexander noemt zichzelf «niet zo kerkelijk, maar wel overtuigd gelovig».
  • Belijdenis: In 1997 heeft hij openbare belijdenis van zijn geloof afgelegd.
  • Christelijke waarden: Hij geeft aan dat het christelijk geloof hem houvast geeft bij moeilijke beslissingen en in zijn leven. [1, 2, 3]

Hoewel de mythologische figuren soms worden genoemd in de context van de Nederlandse en Europese cultuurgeschiedenis, zijn zij geen onderdeel van zijn geloof. [1]

Wil je meer weten over de achtergrond van het geloof binnen de koninklijke familie of hoe dit zich verhoudt tot zijn functie als staatshoofd?

Google: Koning Charles behoudt de titel Fidei Defensor (Verdediger van het Geloof), maar interpreteert deze in de moderne tijd breder dan zijn voorgangers. In plaats van exclusief het anglicaanse christendom te beschermen, zet hij zich in als beschermer van alle religies in het Verenigd Koninkrijk. [1, 2, 3]

De titel Fidei Defensor werd in 1521 door paus Leo X toegekend aan koning Hendrik VIII, omdat hij de katholieke leer verdedigde tegen Maarten Luther. Hoewel de Britse vorst nog altijd de Opperste Gouverneur van de Anglicaanse Kerk is, benadrukt Charles in zijn rol dat hij een pluralistische samenleving wil waarborgen. Dit houdt in dat hij ruimte en respect biedt voor alle geloofsovertuigingen in het land. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

From Wikipedia: Nederländska Ostindien

nederländsk besittning i Sydostasien åren 1810-1945

Nederländska Ostindien
Nederlands-Indië (Nederländska)
18001949
Flagga Vapen
HuvudstadBatavia
Största stadSurabaya[1][2]
SpråkMalajiska
Nederländska
Diverse lokala språk som javanesiska
ReligionIslam
Kristendom (Romersk-katolsk och protestantisk)
Hinduism
Buddhism
Bildades1 januari 1800
Upphörde27 december 1949
Areal1 915 317 km² (1905)
Folkmängd37,96 miljoner (1905)
ValutaNederländska Ostindien-gulden
Föregående
Nederländska Ostindiska Kompaniet Efterföljande
Sundets bosättningar
Japansk ockupation av Nederländska Ostindien
Republiken Indonesiens förenta stater
Nederländerna Nya Guinea
Idag del av Indonesien,  Malaysia

Nederländska Ostindien eller Nederländska Indien (nederländska: Nederlands-Indië; indonesiska: Hindia-Belanda) var en nederländsk koloni i Sydostasien från år 1800 till december 1949, då den självständiga staten Indonesien bildades efter det Indonesiska självständighetskriget.

Kolonin omfattade Sundaöarna utom norra Borneo och östra Timor, Moluckerna samt västra Nya Guinea. Den styrdes före den japanska ockupationen 1942 av en generalguvernör jämte ett råd på fem medlemmar i huvudstaden Batavia, nuvarande Jakarta.[3]

Det var en av de viktigaste europeiska besittningarna,[4] och bidrog till nederländska framgångar i handeln med kryddor och avsalugrödor under 1800-talet och början av 1900-talet.

Historia

Nederländarna i form av Nederländska ostindiska kompaniet hade kommit till vad som nu är Indonesien på 1600-talet. Batavia grundades 1619. Nederländska ostindiska kompaniets höjdpunkt var under mitten och slutet av 1600-talet.[5] Från slutet av 1600-talet gick kompaniet kraftigt bakåt och dess skuldsättning blev hög. Den Bataviska republiken ställde 1795 kompaniet under statskontroll och 1798 upplöstes det.[6] De besittningar som då var i Kompaniets händer omvandlades till ett nederländskt kolonialimperium. År 1800 bildades den nederländska kronkolonin Nederländska Ostindien, med vid den tiden Storbritannien redan erövrat (sedan 1795) de flesta kolonierna utom Java; 1811 togs också denna ö. Efter Napoleons fall bestämdes genom fördraget i Paris 13 augusti 1814, att Nederländerna skulle återfå kolonierna, som också återlämnades (1816-19). 1824 slöt Nederländerna och Storbritannien ett fördrag som delade upp Malajiska arkipelagen i en sydlig nederländsk sfär och en nordlig brittisk sfär.

Från 1840-talet och framåt satsade Nederländerna krafterna på att konsolidera sin makt över dagens Indonesien och att mota andra europeiska länderna från området. De militära styrkorna i Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger bildades för att få kontrollen över Nederländska Ostindien (Indonesien). Nederländerna kom nu att exploatera Indonesien även utanför huvudön Java. Padrikriget följde 1821-1838 och Javakriget 1825–1830. Prinsen Diponegoro opponerade sig mot det nederländska styret och spelade en viktig roll i Javakriget. Efter kriget tvingades han till exil av holländarna. 1849 fick Nederländerna kontroll över norra Bali. Ett långvarigt krig ägde rum i Aceh-provinsen mellan nederländska styrkor och inhemsk gerilla. Först 1912 slutade den väpnade konflikten. I början av 1900-talet hade nederländarna nått kontroll över hela territoriet.

Eduard Douwes Dekker skrev 1860 under pseudonymen Multatuli boken Max Havelaar där Dekker skildrar holländarnas egennytta och utsugningssystem på Java. Boken väckte stort uppseende i Nederländerna.

Nederländska Ostindien deltog 1938 i fotbolls-VM där de blev utslagna i första omgången i.o.m. att man förlorade med 6-0 mot Ungern.

Nederländska Ostindien blir Indonesien

1949 förklarade sig Nederländska Indien självständigt som Indonesien. Då hade den nederländska förvaltningen omintetgjorts av den japanska invasionen och påföljande ockupation. Genom det Indonesiska självständighetskriget (1945-1949) som började efter andra världskrigets slut vann den forna kolonin sin självständighet och bildade staten Indonesien. Nederländerna gav upp sin anspråk först efter påtryckningar för FN och USA med ett undantag i Nederländska Nya Guinea som kvarstod som nederländsk koloni och blev en del av Indonesien 1962.

300 000 personer emigrerade från Indonesien till Nederländerna under de kommande 20 åren: så kallade «Indos» med både nederländska och indonesiska rötter, sydmoluckiska soldater med familjer och personer från Guinea. De kristna sydmoluckiska soldaterna hade rekryterats till den nederländska kolononialarmén under självständighetskriget. 1950 utropades Republiken Sydmoluckerna (Republiken Maluku Selatan) men den omintetgjordes av Indonesien fram till 1955. 35 000 sydmolucker emigrerade till Nederländerna av rädsla för repressalier i Indonesien. En sydmoluckisk självständighetsrörelse bildades i Nederländerna.[7]

Förvaltning

De bestod dels av områden under direkt nederländsk förvaltning, dels av vasallstater och förbundsområden. Hela koloniväldet bildar ett generalguvernement, vars generalguvernör residerade i Buitenzorg på Java och hade en vicekungs myndighet, dock inom vissa gränser, bestämda genom en lag från 1854, med ändringar 1909. Han var inte bara en förvaltningsämbetsman, utan hade också rätt att utfärda lagar och förordningar angående kolonins förvaltning. Han biträdes av det indiska rådet, som bestod av en vicepresident och fyra andra av kungen utnämnda ledamöter, vilka dock endast hade rådgivande myndighet. Men om generalguvernören var av annan mening i lagstiftningsfrågor, måste han vädja till kungen.

Guvernören hade därjämte ett kabinett (i Buitenzorg), kallat generalsekretariatet, med en generalsekreterare i spetsen. Under regeringen lydde 10 departement: för 1) marin-, 2) krigs-, 3) justitie-, 4) inrikes-, 5) kult-, 6) finans-, undervisnings- och industri-, 7) jordbruks-, 8) jordbruksärenden, 9) allmänna arbeten, samt 10) statsverk (gruvor, järnvägar, post och telegraf), vart och ett under en direktor. Dessutom fanns en räkenskapskammare. De centrala ämbetsverken låg i Batavia.

Administrativt delades generalguvernementet i Java och Madura (131 508) km², 30 098 008 invånare, 1905) samt de «yttre besittningarna» (Buitenbezittingen): Sumatra, Banca, Billiton, Riouw-arkipelagen, Borneo, Celebes, Små Sundaöarna, Moluckerna och Nya Guinea (sammanlagd areal 1 783 909 km² med 7 619 363 miljoner invånare, 1905), varav 15 993 européer, 268 250 kineser, 10 440 araber, 20 128 andra asiater samt 7 304 552 inhemsk befolkning. De «yttre besittningarna» var organiserade på samma sätt som Java, men styresmännen kallades guvernörer, residenter, assistent-residenter, kontrollörer, m. m.

Rättsväsende

Rättsväsendet var olika för européer och den inhemska befolkningen: de förre dömdes av europeiska domare, medan hövdingar hade en stor del i rättskipningen av den inhemska befolkningen. Det finnes en högsta domstol i Batavia, appellationsdomstolar i Batavia, Samarang, Soerabaja, Padang och Makassar samt en mängd lägre domstolar av olika slag. Full religionsfrihet rådde.

Försvar

Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger (KNIL) var Nederländernas militära styrkor i Nederländska Ostindien. Förutom den koloniala armén fanns ett slags lantvärn (schutterij), på 4 968 man (av vilka 2 982 från den inhemska befolkningen, även avsett till ordningens upprätthållande. Hela den övriga armén var värvad. En del av den nederländska flottan var stationerad i Ostindien, nämligen (1911) 18 fartyg om 30 005 ton och 54 446 hästkrafter med 141 kanoner.

Undervisning

Undervisningen var delad på två avdelningar, en för européer och med dem assimilerade och en för den inhemska befolkningen. Till den förra hörde (1909) 10 offentliga mellanskolor med 197 lärare och 2 437 lärjungar, 183 folkskolor, nämligen 152 offentliga (128 samskolor och 24 uteslutande flickskolor), 24 statsunderstödda och sju ej statsunderstödda privata skolor i Java och Madura samt 48 offentliga och 2 privata skolor i de «yttre besittningarna» med sammanlagt 2 ,267 barn, samt 2 normalskolor. Nettokostnaderna för alla dessa skolor steg till 2,87 miljoner gulden.

För den inhemska befolkningen fanns (1909) 6 normalskolor (i Bandung, Probolinggo, Djokjakarta, Oengaran, Fort de Kock, Amboina) med 516 lärjungar samt 472 offentliga och 616 enskilda skolor i Java och Madoera samt i de «yttre besittningarna» (1908) 393 offentliga och 1 299 enskilda skolor. Dessutom fanns 4 skolor för söner till infödda hövdingar. Denna gren av undervisningsväsendet kostade staten (1909) 3,87 miljoner gulden. För i den asiatiska befolkningen (kineser, araber m. fl.) fanns 1906 478 skolor med 12 426 studenter.

Statsfinanser

Statsinkomsterna kom främst från skatter på hus och jord, från licenser, tullar och ett antal indirekta pålagor samt från personliga skatter; vidare ifrån statsmonopol (på salt och opium), från järnvägar och från försäljningen av produkter, som frambragts på statsdomänerna. Summan av alla statsinkomsterna steg 1911 till 212,6 miljoner gulden, men statsutgifterna uppgick till 228,7 miljoner. Underskottet på 16,1 miljoner gulden, täcktes genom bidrag från moderlandet. 1907-12 visade budgeten varje år större eller mindre underskott, utom 1907, som lämnade ett överskott på 11,5 miljoner gulden.

Av statsinkomsterna kom årligen omkring 28,5 miljoner från Nederländerna för försäljning av den indiska styrelsens produkter: kaffe, porslin, tenn (24,4 miljoner gulden) m. m. Av de indiska inkomsterna steg vinsten på opiumhandeln till 28 miljoner (odling av vallmo var förbjuden, och opiumbehovet fylles genom import från Brittiska Indien och Levanten, varefter regeringen till högt pris avyttrade varan), tullar och acciser till 32 mill., jordskatterna till 27 miljoner, saltskatten till 14 miljoner.

Näringsliv

De viktigaste jordbruksprodukterna, som var föremål för export, är socker, tobak, kina, kopra, kautschuk, kaffe, ris och peppar; av andra varor: petroleum, tenn och hudar. Exporten från hela kolonin hade 1909 ett värde av 455 miljoner gulden, importen dit skattades till 281,6 miljoner gulden.

Spår av kolonialtiden

Batavias stadshus är idag Jakartas historiska museum

Det finns inom arkitekturen flera tydliga spår av kolonialtiden. Flera byggnader finns kvar men många byggnader har även kommit att rivas. Under den holländska tiden byggdes förorten Weltevreden i Jakarta.[8] I Bandung används byggnader från den holländska tiden främst av offentliga institutioner. Byggnader går i art deco och nyklassicistisk stil.

I Indonesien finns sju nederländska krigskyrkogårdar som administreras av Nederländernas stiftelse för krigsgravar (Oorlogsgravenstichting). Det fanns ursprungligen 22 stycken men antalet minskade när Indonesien blev självständigt.[9]

History of the Netherlands with Indonesia – from Wikipedia – in German

Niederländisch-Indien (niederländisch Nederlands-Indië, indonesisch Hindia-Belanda), auch bekannt als Niederländisch-Ostindien, war der Vorläufer der heutigen Republik Indonesien.

Im Britisch-Niederländischen Vertrag von 1824 traten die Niederländer das Gouvernorat Niederländisch-Malakka an Großbritannien ab, was zu seiner späteren Eingliederung in Malakka (Staat) des heutigen Malaysia führte.

Vereinigte Niederländische Ostindien-Kompanie

Siegel der VOC

Vom frühen 17. Jahrhundert an war die Vereinigte Niederländische Ostindien-Kompanie (VOC) die dominierende Macht auf dem malaiischen Archipel. 1602 gegründet, ging sie sehr schnell gegen die damals den Archipel beherrschenden Portugiesen vor. Portugal war zu jener Zeit ein Nebenland Spaniens, das sich wiederum mit den niederländischen Provinzen der Utrechter Union im Achtzigjährigen Krieg befand. 1605 wurde Amboyna auf den Molukken als erster Stützpunkt von den Niederländern eingenommen. 1619 wurde Batavia, das heutige Jakarta, als Hauptsitz der Kompanie gegründet; die Staatshoheit beschränkte sich ursprünglich auf dessen nähere Umgebung. Im Lauf des 17. Jahrhunderts wurden nach und nach die wichtigsten Häfen des Archipels eingenommen: Malakka 1641, Aceh 1667, Makassar 1669, zuletzt das britische Bantam 1682.

Das wirtschaftliche Rückgrat der Kolonie waren Gewürze, die auf den verschiedenen Inseln in Monokulturen angebaut wurden: Amboyna war auf Gewürznelken spezialisiert, Timor auf Sandelholz, die Banda-Inseln auf Muskatnuss. Aus dem gleichfalls niederländischen Ceylon kam Zimt. Ein weiteres wichtiges Gewürz war der schwarze Pfeffer. Dieser wurde gegen Baumwolle aus Indien und Silber aus Amerika eingetauscht. Eine der wichtigsten Quellen des Reichtums war allerdings der Handel innerhalb des Archipels (siehe auch Indienhandel).

Übernahme durch die niederländische Regierung nach 1799

Im späten 18. Jahrhundert war die VOC längst zu einem „Staat im Staate“ geworden. Die bevorzugte Methode der indirekten Herrschaft über die indonesischen Fürsten wurde vom niederländischen Staat allerdings weitergeführt. Nach der Auflösung der VOC 1799 und einer Zwischenphase während der Napoleonischen Kriege (von 1811 bis 1815), in der der Archipel von den Briten erobert und verwaltet wurde, übernahm der niederländische Staat 1816 die Verwaltungshoheit. Dabei wurde Insulinde von den Briten als einziges größeres niederländisches Kolonialgebiet zurückgegeben. Dieser Prozess fand seinen Abschluss mit dem Vertrag von 1824, bei dem Bengcoolen (heute Bengkulu), der britische Stützpunkt auf Sumatra, gegen Malakka, den niederländischen Stützpunkt auf der Malaiischen Halbinsel, getauscht wurde, wodurch die Einflussgebiete der Kolonialmächte dauerhaft abgegrenzt wurden.

In den Jahren zwischen etwa 1890 und 1910 wurde das Gebiet mitsamt dem Hinterland vieler Inseln, auf denen die VOC nur Stützpunkte errichtet hatte, als Kolonie organisiert. Die niederländische Regierung vollendete die Aufteilung von Nederlands-Indië in Gouvernementen (Gouvernements) sowie Regentschappen (Regentschaften) und baute eine Kolonialverwaltung auf.[2] So gehörte ab 1908 (Fall Acehs) das gesamte Territorium des späteren Indonesien zu Niederländisch-Indien. Die Grenze zu Portugiesisch-Timor, die weitgehend der heutigen Grenze zwischen Indonesien und Osttimor entspricht, wurde 1916 endgültig festgelegt.

Die Bevölkerungszahl betrug 1900 etwa 37 Millionen; davon lebten 29 Millionen auf Java und Madura. In der Kolonie wohnten etwa 80.000 Europäer und 550.000 ethnische Chinesen.[3]

Kolonialtruppen

→ Hauptartikel: Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indisch Leger

Schon zu Zeiten der Ostindischen Kompanie wurde ein Großteil der eingesetzten Soldaten aus deutschen Freiwilligen rekrutiert. Diese Praxis dauerte in der Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger fort. Der Anteil von Nicht-Holländern betrug unter den europäischen Mannschaften vor 1900 deutlich über 50 Prozent, später etwa ein Drittel. An Einheimischen wurden hauptsächlich die als „kriegerisch“ geltenden Javaner und die oft christlichen Ambonesen angeworben. Für Wachdienste und zur Guerillabekämpfung in Aceh wurden noch in den 1890er Jahren Hilfstruppen (Marechaussee) ausgehoben.[4]

Zweiter Weltkrieg und Unabhängigkeit

→ Hauptartikel: Indonesischer Unabhängigkeitskrieg

Sukarno

Nach dem japanischen Angriff auf Pearl Harbor am 7. Dezember 1941 erklärte die niederländische Exilregierung dem Kaiserreich Japan gemeinsam mit den USA, Großbritannien und weiteren Ländern den Krieg. Zwischen dem 16. Dezember 1941 und dem 8. März 1942 eroberte die japanische Armee ganz Niederländisch-Indien. Am 9. März erfolgte gegenüber den Angreifern auf der Insel Java die bedingungslose Kapitulation.[5] Das Gebiet blieb bis zum Kriegsende 1945 in japanischer Hand. Die indonesische Nationalbewegung unter Sukarno und Mohammad Hatta wurde von den Besatzern geduldet und unterstützt.

Am 17. August 1945 erklärte der Republikaner Sukarno noch vor der Kapitulation Japans Niederländisch-Indien für unabhängig. Die Niederlande erkannten dies jedoch nicht an, sondern bemühten sich um eine Wiederherstellung ihrer Macht. In einer Übergangsphase waren japanische Truppen nach Absprache weiterhin für Ruhe und Ordnung verantwortlich, kontrolliert von den Briten. In dieser Zeit gelang es den Republikanern, große Teile der Hauptinsel Java und einige andere Gebiete zu beherrschen. In zwei Militäraktionen, beschönigend „Polizeiaktionen“ genannt, eroberten die Niederlande zwar viele Gebiete der Republikaner, doch die Weltöffentlichkeit verurteilte dies, darunter auch die USA, von deren finanzieller Hilfe die Niederlande abhängig waren.

Die Niederländer erkannten die Unabhängigkeit Indonesiens am 27. Dezember 1949 an, behielten aber die Souveränität über Niederländisch-Neuguinea, woran 1954 die vereinbarte Zusammenarbeit in der Niederländisch-Indonesischen Union scheiterte. Erst 1962 stimmten die Niederlande unter dem Druck der Vereinigten Staaten im New Yorker Abkommen der Übergabe an Indonesien zu. Die von den Niederlanden beabsichtigte Gründung eines neuen Staates mit dem Namen Republik Westpapua konnte daher nicht verwirklicht werden. Kurze Zeit später wurde der westliche Teil der Insel von Indonesien übernommen. Eine von den Niederlanden als Bedingung ins New Yorker Abkommen eingebrachte Volksabstimmung der Papua über ihre Zugehörigkeit zu Indonesien, der Act of Free Choice von 1969, wurde von Indonesien zu seinen Gunsten manipuliert, aber von der UNO offiziell anerkannt.

Seit 1959 wird an die beziehungsreiche Geschichte Niederländisch-Indiens und ihre Nachwirkungen in der jährlich stattfindenden Tong Tong Fair in Den Haag erinnert.

Wappen

Das Wappen von Niederländisch-Indien[6] gleicht dem Königinnenwappen der Niederlande, unterscheidet sich von diesem aber in den Prachtstücken: Es fehlt das rote gekrönte Wappenzelt mit Hermelinfutter.

Wappenbeschreibung: In Blau ein goldener rotbewehrter und auch so gezungter goldgekrönter Löwe mit der rechten Pranke ein goldbegrifftes silbernes Schwert schwingend und in der anderen ein goldenes Bündel mit sieben Pfeilen haltend. Der Schild, von zwei goldenen rotbewehrten und auch so gezungten Löwen gehalten, ist mit goldenen Schindeln besät und mit der goldenen niederländischen Königskrone gekrönt.

Unter dem Schild ein blaues Band mit dem Wappenspruch in silbernen Majuskeln und in französischer Sprache Je maintiendrai in der Bedeutung von „Ich werde bestehen“.

Federal Constitutionof the Swiss Confederation

of 18 April 1999 (Status as of 3 March 2024)

Preamble

In the name of Almighty God!

The Swiss People and the Cantons,

mindful of their responsibility towards creation,

resolved to renew their alliance so as to strengthen liberty, democracy, independence and peace in a spirit of solidarity and openness towards the world,

determined to live together with mutual consideration and respect for their diversity,

conscious of their common achievements and their responsibility towards future generations,

and in the knowledge that only those who use their freedom remain free, and that the strength of a people is measured by the well-being of its weakest members,

adopt the following Constitution1:

1 Adopted by the popular vote on 18 April 1999 (FedD of 18 Dec. 1998, FCD of 11 Aug. 1999; AS 1999 2556;BBl 1997 I 1,1999 162 5986).

Title 1 General Provisions

Art. 1 The Swiss Confederation

The People and the Cantons of Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Obwalden and Nidwalden, Glarus, Zug, Fribourg, Solothurn, Basel Stadt and Basel Landschaft, Schaffhausen, Appenzell Ausserrhoden and Appenzell Innerrhoden, St Gallen, Graubünden, Aargau, Thurgau, Ticino, Vaud, Valais, Neuchâtel, Geneva, and Jura form the Swiss Confederation.

Art. 2 Aims

1 The Swiss Confederation shall protect the liberty and rights of the people and safeguard the independence and security of the country.

2 It shall promote the common welfare, sustainable development, internal cohesion and cultural diversity of the country.

3 It shall ensure the greatest possible equality of opportunity among its citizens.

4 It is committed to the long term preservation of natural resources and to a just and peaceful international order.

Art. 3 Cantons

The Cantons are sovereign except to the extent that their sovereignty is limited by the Federal Constitution. They exercise all rights that are not vested in the Confederation.

Art. 4 National languages

The National Languages are German, French, Italian, and Romansh.

Art. 5 Rule of law

1 All activities of the state are based on and limited by law.

2 State activities must be conducted in the public interest and be proportionate to the ends sought.

3 State institutions and private persons shall act in good faith.

4 The Confederation and the Cantons shall respect international law.

Art. 5a2 Subsidiarity

The principle of subsidiarity must be observed in the allocation and performance of state tasks.

2 Adopted by the popular vote on 28 Nov. 2004, in force since 1 Jan. 2008 (FCD of 3 Oct. 2003, FCD of 26 Jan. 2005, FCD of 7 Nov. 2007; AS 2007 5765; BBl 2002 2291, 2003 6591, 2005 951).

Art. 6 Individual and collective responsibility

All individuals shall take responsibility for themselves and shall, according to their abilities, contribute to achieving the tasks of the state and society.

Title 2 Fundamental Rights, Citizenship and Social Goals

Chapter 1 Fundamental Rights

Art. 7 Human dignity

Human dignity must be respected and protected.

Art. 8 Equality before the law

1 Every person is equal before the law.

2 No person may be discriminated against, in particular on grounds of origin, race, gender, age, language, social position, way of life, religious, ideological, or political convictions, or because of a physical, mental or psychological disability.

3 Men and women have equal rights. The law shall ensure their equality, both in law and in practice, most particularly in the family, in education, and in the workplace. Men and women have the right to equal pay for work of equal value.

4 The law shall provide for the elimination of inequalities that affect persons with disabilities.

Art. 9 Protection against arbitrary conduct and principle of good faith

Every person has the right to be treated by state authorities in good faith and in a non-arbitrary manner.

Art. 10 Right to life and to personal freedom

1 Every person has the right to life. The death penalty is prohibited.

2 Every person has the right to personal liberty and in particular to physical and mental integrity and to freedom of movement.

3 Torture and any other form of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment are prohibited.

Art. 10a3 Ban on covering the face4*

1 No person may cover their face in public spaces or in places that are accessible to the public or where services are offered to anyone wishing to partake of them; the ban does not apply to places of worship.

2 No person may force another person to cover their face on the grounds of their sex.

3 The law shall provide for exceptions. These may only be justified on the grounds of health, safety, weather conditions or local custom.

3 Adopted by the popular vote on 7 March 2021, in force since 7 March 2021 (FedD of 19 June 2020, FCD of 31 May 2021 – AS 2021 310; BBl 2017 6447; 2019 2913; 2020 5507; 2021 1185).

4* With transitional provision.

Art. 11 Protection of children and young people

1 Children and young people have the right to the special protection of their integrity and to the encouragement of their development.

2 They may personally exercise their rights to the extent that their power of judgement allows.

Art. 12 Right to assistance when in need

Persons in need and unable to provide for themselves have the right to assistance and care, and to the financial means required for a decent standard of living.

Art. 13 Right to privacy

1 Every person has the right to privacy in their private and family life and in their home, and in relation to their mail and telecommunications.

2 Every person has the right to be protected against the misuse of their personal data.

Art. 14 Right to marry and to have a family

The right to marry and to have a family is guaranteed.

Art. 15 Freedom of religion and conscience

1 Freedom of religion and conscience is guaranteed.

2 Every person has the right to choose freely their religion or their philosophical convictions, and to profess them alone or in community with others.

3 Every person has the right to join or to belong to a religious community, and to follow religious teachings.

4 No person may be forced to join or belong to a religious community, to participate in a religious act, or to follow religious teachings.

Art. 16 Freedom of expression and of information

1 Freedom of expression and of information is guaranteed.

2 Every person has the right freely to form, express, and impart their opinions.

3 Every person has the right freely to receive information to gather it from generally accessible sources and to disseminate it.

Art. 17 Freedom of the media

1 Freedom of the press, radio and television and of other forms of dissemination of features and information by means of public telecommunications is guaranteed.

2 Censorship is prohibited.

3 The protection of sources is guaranteed.

Art. 18 Freedom to use any language

The freedom to use any language is guaranteed.

Art. 19 Right to basic education

The right to an adequate and free basic education is guaranteed

Art. 20 Academic freedom

Freedom of research and teaching is guaranteed.

Art. 21 Freedom of artistic expression

Freedom of artistic expression is guaranteed.

Art. 22 Freedom of assembly

1 Freedom of assembly is guaranteed.

2 Every person has the right to organise meetings and to participate or not to participate in meetings.

Art. 23 Freedom of association

1 Freedom of association is guaranteed.

2 Every person has the right to form, join or belong to an association and to participate in the activities of an association.

3 No person may be compelled to join or to belong to an association.

Art. 24 Freedom of domicile

1 Swiss citizens have the right to establish their domicile anywhere in the country.

2 They have the right to leave or to enter Switzerland.

Art. 25 Protection against expulsion, extradition and deportation

1 Swiss citizens may not be expelled from Switzerland and may only be extradited to a foreign authority with their consent.

2 Refugees may not be deported or extradited to a state in which they will be persecuted.

3 No person may be deported to a state in which they face the threat of torture or any other form of cruel or inhumane treatment or punishment.

Art. 26 Guarantee of ownership

1 The right to own property is guaranteed.

2 The compulsory purchase of property and any restriction on ownership that is equivalent to compulsory purchase shall be compensated in full.

Art. 27 Economic freedom

1 Economic freedom is guaranteed.

2 Economic freedom includes in particular the freedom to choose an occupation as well as the freedom to pursue a private economic activity.

Art. 28 Right to form professional associations

1 Employees, employers and their organisations have the right to join together in order to protect their interests, to form associations and to join or not to join such associations.

2 Disputes must wherever possible be resolved through negotiation or mediation.

3 Strikes and lock outs are permitted if they relate to employment relations and if they do not contravene any requirements to preserve peaceful employment relations or to conduct conciliation proceedings.

4 The law may prohibit certain categories of person from taking strike action.

Art. 29 General procedural guarantees

1 Every person has the right to equal and fair treatment in judicial and administrative proceedings and to have their case decided within a reasonable time.

2 Each party to a case has the right to be heard.

3 Any person who does not have sufficient means has the right to free legal advice and assistance unless their case appears to have no prospect of success. If it is necessary in order to safeguard their rights, they also have the right to free legal representation in court.

Art. 29a5 Guarantee of access to the courts

In a legal dispute, every person has the right to have their case determined by a judicial authority. The Confederation and the Cantons may by law preclude the determination by the courts of certain exceptional categories of case.

5 Adopted by the popular vote on 12 March 2000, in force since 1 Jan. 2007 (FedD of 8 Oct. 1999, FCD of 17 May 2000, FedD of 8 March 2005; AS 2002 3148, 2006 1059; BBl 1997 I 1, 1999 8633, 2000 2990, 2001 4202).

Art. 30 Judicial proceedings

1 Any person whose case falls to be judicially decided has the right to have their case heard by a legally constituted, competent, independent and impartial court. Ad hoc courts are prohibited.

2 Unless otherwise provided by law, any person against whom civil proceedings have been raised has the right to have their case decided by a court within the jurisdiction in which they reside.

3 Unless the law provides otherwise, court hearings and the delivery of judgments shall be in public.

Art. 31 Deprivation of liberty

1 No person may be deprived of their liberty other than in the circumstances and in the manner provided for by the law.

2 Any person deprived of their liberty has the right to be notified without delay and in a language they can understand of the reasons for their detention and of their rights. They must be given the opportunity to exercise their rights, in particular, the right to have their next-of-kin informed.

3 Any person in pre-trial detention has the right to be brought before a court without delay. The court decides whether the person must remain in detention or be released. Any person in pre-trial detention has the right to have their case decided within a reasonable time.

4 Any person who has been deprived of their liberty by a body other than a court has the right to have recourse to a court at any time. The court shall decide as quickly as possible on the legality of their detention.

Art. 32 Criminal proceedings

1 Every person is presumed innocent until they have been found guilty by a legally enforceable judgment.

2 Every accused person has the right to be notified as quickly and comprehensively as possible of the charge brought against them. They must be given the opportunity to assert their rights to a proper defence.

3 Every convicted person has the right to have their conviction reviewed by a higher court, with the exception of cases in which the Federal Supreme Court sits at first instance.

Art. 33 Right of petition

1 Every person has the right, without prejudice, to petition the authorities.

2 The authorities must acknowledge receipt of such petitions.

Art. 34 Political rights

1 Political rights are guaranteed.

2 The guarantee of political rights protects the freedom of the citizen to form an opinion and to give genuine expression to his or her will.

Art. 35 Upholding of fundamental rights

1 Fundamental rights must be upheld throughout the legal system.

2 Whoever acts on behalf of the state is bound by fundamental rights and is under a duty to contribute to their implementation.

3 The authorities shall ensure that fundamental rights, where appropriate, apply to relationships among private persons.

Art. 36 Restrictions on fundamental rights

1 Restrictions on fundamental rights must have a legal basis. Significant restrictions must have their basis in a federal act. The foregoing does not apply in cases of serious and immediate danger where no other course of action is possible.

2 Restrictions on fundamental rights must be justified in the public interest or for the protection of the fundamental rights of others.

3 Any restrictions on fundamental rights must be proportionate.

4 The essence of fundamental rights is sacrosanct.

Chapter 2 Citizenship and Political Rights

Art. 37 Citizenship

1 Any person who is a citizen of a commune and of the Canton to which that commune belongs is a Swiss citizen.

2 No person may be given preferential treatment or suffer prejudice because of their citizenship. The foregoing does not apply to regulations on political rights in citizens’ communes and corporations or to participation in the assets thereof, unless cantonal legislation provides otherwise.

Art. 38 Acquisition and deprivation of citizenship

1 The Confederation shall regulate the acquisition and deprivation of citizenship by birth, marriage or adoption. It shall also regulate the deprivation of Swiss citizenship on other grounds, together with the reinstatement of citizenship.

2 It shall legislate on the minimum requirements for the naturalisation of foreign nationals by the Cantons and grant naturalisation permits.

3 It shall enact simplified regulations on the naturalisation of:a. third generation immigrants;b. stateless children.6

6 Adopted by the popular vote on 12 Feb. 2017, in force since 12 Feb. 2017 (FedD of 30 Sept. 2016, FCD of 13 April 2017 – AS 2017 2643; BBl 2015 769 1327, 2017 3387).

Art. 39 Exercise of political rights

1 The Confederation shall regulate the exercise of political rights in federal matters, and the Cantons shall regulate their exercise at cantonal and communal matters.

2 Political rights are exercised in the commune in which a citizen resides, although the Confederation and the Cantons may provide for exceptions.

3 No person may exercise their political rights contemporaneously in more than one Canton.

4 A Canton may provide that a person newly registered as a resident may exercise the right to vote in cantonal and communal matters only after a waiting period of a maximum of three months of permanent settlement.

Art. 40 The Swiss abroad

1 The Confederation shall encourage relations among the Swiss abroad and their relations with Switzerland. It may support organisations that pursue this objective.

2 It shall legislate on the rights and obligations of the Swiss abroad, in particular in relation to the exercise of political rights in the Confederation, the fulfilment of the obligation to perform military or alternative service, welfare support and social security.

Chapter 3 Social Objectives

Art. 41

1 The Confederation and the Cantons shall, as a complement to personal responsibility and private initiative, endeavour to ensure that:a. every person has access to social security;b. every person has access to the health care that they require;c. families are protected and encouraged as communities of adults and children;d. every person who is fit to work can earn their living by working under fair conditions;e. any person seeking accommodation for themselves and their family can find suitable accommodation on reasonable terms;f. children and young people as well as persons of employable age can obtain an education and undergo basic and advanced training in accordance with their abilities;g.7 children and young people are encouraged to develop into independent and socially responsible people and are supported in their social, cultural and political integration and in leading healthy lives.

2 The Confederation and Cantons shall endeavour to ensure that every person is protected against the economic consequences of old-age, invalidity, illness, accident, unemployment, maternity, being orphaned and being widowed.

3 They shall endeavour to achieve these social objectives within the scope of their constitutional powers and the resources available to them.

4 No direct right to state benefits may be established on the basis of these social objectives.

Interesting topic. From Google Gemini.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is not legally binding, so it does not have a formal rank in the Dutch law hierarchy. However, its core principles are embedded in the legally binding international treaties and the Dutch Constitution, both of which sit at the highest level of the Dutch legal order. [1, 2, 3, 4]

The Dutch legal hierarchy ranks sources of law in the following order: [1]

  1. International Treaties & European Law (e.g., the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and EU Law)
  2. The Constitution
  3. Acts of Parliament (Statutes)
  4. General Administrative Orders & Lower Regulations [1, 2, 3, 4]

Why international human rights treaties rank higher:
The Netherlands has a monistic legal system, meaning international law automatically becomes part of domestic law. Under Articles 93 and 94 of the Dutch Constitution, any binding international treaty provision—such as those found in the ECHR—takes precedence over conflicting national laws, including Acts of Parliament. [1, 3, 4]

If you are asking about a specific situation, could you tell me what type of human right or specific law you are dealing with (e.g., freedom of speech, discrimination, privacy)? I can explain how the courts weigh that specific case.